In the Qurán compiled by the order of the Khalíf Osmán there were no vowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islám they found great difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian, then invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The seven famous "Readers" whose names have been given to the various modes of reading, are Imám Nafi of Madína, Imám Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imám Abu 'Umr of Basra, Imám Hamza of Kufa, Imám Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imám 'Ásim of Kufa, Imám Kisáe of Kufa. These learned men affixed different vowel-points in many places in the Qurán, and thus slight differences of meaning arose. In India the "qirá,at—reading,—of Imám 'Ásim is followed by both Sunnís and Shía'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading the Qurán privately, but not when reading any part in a liturgical service. During the month of Ramazán the Qurán is repeated every night in the mosque, it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited each night. The Imám of the mosque, or public Reader, (Qárí) who commences according to one of the seven recognised readings (qirá,at), must keep to the same all the month. As he has to recite without a book this involves a great exercise of the memory. A good Háfiz will know the whole seven varieties.
The various readings thus introduced, though
unimportant in their nature, amount to about five hundred in number. The following are a few illustrations. In the second Sura Abu 'Umr reads: "Nor shall ye be questioned concerning that which they have done;" but 'Ásim reads: "That which ye have done." This is caused by putting two dots above the line instead of below it. Again 'Ásim reads: "Enter ye the gates of hell" (Sura xxxix. 73), but Nafi reads: "Ye will be made to enter hell,"—that is, by a slight change the passive is substituted for the active voice. These are fair samples of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, is touched, but the way in which Tradition records the Prophet's anticipation of the difficulty is instructive to the student of Islám. At times, too, fierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famous Readers whose names I have given above. In the year 935 A.H., Ibn Shanabud, a resident of Baghdád, ventured to introduce some different readings in his recital of the Qurán. The people of Baghdád, not knowing these, were furious, and the Khalíf was compelled to cast the offender into prison. A Council of divines was called together, before whom the unhappy Ibn Shanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his "readings," but after being whipped seven times he said: "I renounce my manner of reading, and in future I shall follow no other than that of the manuscript drawn up by the Khalíf Osmán, and that which is generally received."
Closely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the science of grammar. As Islám spread, it became necessary to expound the Qurán to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar then became an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions a necessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in doubt as to the lawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There was no command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any directions on this point. It was then neither "farz" nor "sunnat," that is, neither a command based on the Qurán nor one based on any saying or act of the Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty.
Al Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalíf of Baghdád, was a patron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of his, Abu'l 'Abbás Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that the Quránists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their heavenly reward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all was, in connection with the Qurán, a science of doubtful legality. The friend to whom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It is recorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which he saw the blessed Prophet, who said to him: "Give my greeting to Abu'l 'Abbás Thalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science.'" The Prophet had now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islám. Muslims now quote the Qurán as a perfect model of style; it may be well to remember that the rules have been made for it, and that, therefore, it is but natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons of Arabic grammar.
The question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very important branch of the "'Ilm-i-usúl." It is said that the Qurán was brought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. The Prophet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and answered the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. "The infidels say, 'unless the Qurán be sent down to him all at once'—but in this way we establish thy heart in it, in parcels have we parcelled it out to thee" (Sura xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely objective; it came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel. "Yet it is a glorious Qurán, written on the preserved Table." (Sura lxxxv. 22). Gabriel addresses the Prophet thus: "When we have recited it then follow thou the recital." (Sura lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came is referred to in the verse: "We have sent down to thee an Arabic Qurán." (Sura xx. 112). The fragmentary way in which the Qurán was given was not without its difficulties. Some passages contradicted others, some were difficult to understand. To the Prophet alone was the solution known. The knowledge he communicated to his immediate followers, the Companions, as they are called, thus: "To thee have we sent down this book of monitions, that thou mayest make clear to men what hath been sent down to them." (Sura xvi. 46).
Ibn Khaldoun says: "The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished between abrogated and abrogating verses, and communicated this knowledge to his Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the verses and the circumstances which led to each distinct revelation being made." The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with the whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to their followers, the Tába'ín, who in their turn passed it on to their followers the Taba-i-Tába'ín. The art of writing then became common, and the business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the sayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in the Qurán was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companion was beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the second must be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement were perfect. Thus early in the history of Islám were the principles of exegesis fixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and class. The commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before,though he may in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Tradition hitherto unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It will thus be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator, with all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islám. The perfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature—
"While as the world rolls on from age to age,
And realms of thought expand,
The letter stands without expanse or range,
Stiff as a dead man's hand."
The technical terms which the student must know, and the definitions of which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of the words, the sentences, the use of the words of the Qurán, and the deduction of arguments from passages in the book.
I. The words of the Qurán are divided into four classes.
1. Kháss, or special words. These are sub-divided into three classes. First, words which relate to genus, e.g. mankind. Secondly, words which relate to species, e.g. a man, which refers to men as distinguished from women. Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, e.g. Zeid, which is the name of a special individual.
2. 'Amm, or common or collective names, such as "people."
3. Mushtarik, or words which have several significations, as the Arabic word "'ain," which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. Again, the word "Sulát," if connected with God, may mean mercy, as "Sulát Ulláh," the mercy of God; if with man, it may mean either "namáz," a stated liturgical service, or "du'a," prayer in its ordinary sense, e.g. Sulát-ul-Istisqá (prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not namáz.
4. Muawwal, words which have several significations, all of which are possible, and so a special explanation is required. For example, Sura cviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. "Wherefore pray unto the Lord and slay (the victims)." The word translated "slay" is in Arabic "nahr," which has many meanings. The followers of the great Legist Abu Hanífa render it, "sacrifice," and add the words (the "victims"). The followers of Ibn Sháfa'í say it means "placing the hands on the breast in prayer."
This illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In the former, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the context settles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right.
These divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of defining any word in the Qurán gained, the student passes on to consider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two great classes,—the "Obvious," and the "Hidden."
This division is referred to in the following passage of the Qurán. "He it is who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of themselves perspicuous; these are the basis (literally "mother") of the book, and others are figurative. But they whose hearts are given to err follow its figures, craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none know its interpretation, but God. And the stable in knowledge say: 'We believe in it, it is all from God.'" (Sura iii. 3).
This has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and allegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the commentator must know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the time when, the particular passage he is expounding was revealed; he must know whether it abrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper order and place or not; whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light which the context throws upon it; he must know all the Traditions which bear upon it, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effectually confines the order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to the Companions, and supplies the reason why commentators since then simply reproduce their opinions. But to return from this digression. Sentences are Záhir—"Obvious," or Khafí—"Hidden." Obvious sentences are divided into four classes.
I. (1). Záhir, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear that he who hears it at once understands its meaning without seeking for any explanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless abrogated, action in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command of God. All penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of one religious act for another, e.g. almsgiving instead of fasting, must be based on this, the clearest of the obvious sentences.
(2). Nass, a word commonly used for a text of the Qurán, but in its technical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the meaning of which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The following sentence illustrates both Záhir and Nass: "Take in marriage of such other women as please you, two, three, four." This sentence is Záhir, because marriage is here declared lawful; it is Nass, because the words "one, two, three, four," which occur in the sentence, show the unlawfulness of having more than four wives.
(3). Mufassir, or explained. This is a sentence which needs some word in it to explain it and make it clear. Thus: "And the angels prostrated themselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan)." Here the words "save Iblis," show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind of sentence may be abrogated.
(4). Mukham, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the meaning of which there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, thus: "God knoweth all things." This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on such sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highest degree of obedience to God's command.
The difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or apparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first must give place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or changed by any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c.
The other great division of sentences is that of
II. (1). Khafí or hidden. Such are those sentences in which other persons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or expression contained therein, as: "as for a thief, whether male or female, cut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings." (Sura v. 42). The word for thief is "Sáriq," and in this passage it is understood to include highwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These meanings are Khafí or hidden under it.
(2). Muskhil, or ambiguous, The following is given as an illustration: "And (their attendants) shall go round about them with vessels of silver and goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver." The difficulty here is that bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. The commentators say, however, that glass is dull in colour, though it has some lustre, whilst silver is white, and not so bright as glass. Now it may be, that the bottles of Paradise will be like glass bottles as regards their lustre, and like silver as regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult to ascertain the meaning.
(3.) Mujmal. These are, first, sentences which may have a variety of interpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of several meanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in the Traditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, the sentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its meaning may be doubtful, as: "Man truly is by creation hasty." (Sura lxx. 19.) In this verse the word "halú'"—hasty—occurs. It is very rarely used, and had it not been for the following words, "when evil toucheth him, he is full of complaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh niggardly," its meaning would not have been at all easy to understand.
The following is an illustration of the first kind of Mujmal sentences: "Stand for prayer (salát) and give alms," (zakát.) Both salát and zakát are 'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not understand this verse, so they applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained to them that "salát" might mean the ritual of public prayer, standing to say the words "God is great," or standing to repeat a few verses of the Qurán; or it might mean private prayer. The primitive meaning of "zakát" is growing. The Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of "almsgiving," and said, "Give of your substance one-fortieth part."
(4.) Mutashábih. These are sentences so difficult that men cannot understand them, a fact referred to in Sura iii. 3. (Ante. p. 49), nor will they do so until the day of resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew their meaning. Such portions are the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at the commencement of some of the Súras. Such expressions also as "God's hand," "The face of God," "God sitteth," &c., come under this category.
The next point to be considered is the use of words in the Qurán, and here again the same symmetrical division into four classes is found, viz:—
(1.) Haqíqat, that is, words which are used in their literal meaning, as "rukú'," a prostration, and "salát" in the sense of prayer.
(2.) Majáz, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as "salát" in the sense of "námáz" a liturgical service.
(3.) Saríh, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, "Thou art divorced," "Thou art free."
(4.) Kinayáh, or words which, being used in a metaphorical sense, require the aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: "Thou art separated," which may, as it stands alone, mean "Thou art divorced." This class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to be known from the context, e.g. one day the Prophet not knowing who knocked at his door said, "Who art thou?" The man replied, "It is I." Muhammad answered, "Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that I may know who thou art." The pronoun "I" is here 'kinayáh.'
The most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is "istidlál," or the science of deducing arguments from the Qurán. This too is divided into four sections, as follows:—
(1.) Ibárat, or the plain sentence. "Mothers, after they are divorced, shall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall be obliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is reasonable." (Sura ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made. First, from the fact that the word "them" is in the feminine plural, it must refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty of supporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows that the relationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother. Penal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind.
(2.) Ishárat, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the order in which the words are placed.
(3.) Dalálat, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some special word in the verse, as: "say not to your parents, "Fie" (Arabic "uff") (Sura xvii. 23). From the use of the word "uff," it is argued that children may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on "dalálat," thus: "Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but God loveth not the abettors of disorder." (Sura v. 69.) The word translated "aim" is in Arabic literally yasa'úna, "they run." From this the argument is deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst those whom "God loveth not," and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be given to them, for any deduction that comes under the head of "dalálat" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal laws.
(4.) Iqtizá. This is a deduction which demands certain conditions: "whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free a believer from slavery." (Sra iv. 94). As a man has no authority to free his neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed, is that the slave should be his own property.
The Qurán is divided into:—
(1). Harf (plural Hurúf), letters. The numbers given by different authorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there are 338,606 letters.
(2). Kalima (plural Kalimát), words, stated by some to amount to 79,087; by others to 77,934.
(3). Áyat (plural Áyát), verses. Áyat really means a sign, and was the name given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of the Qurán. The end of a verse is determined by the position of a small circle . The early Qurán Readers did not agree as to the position of these circles, and so five different ways of arranging them have arisen. This accounts for a variation in the number of verses in various editions. The varieties are:—
(1). Kúfa verses. The Readers in the city of Kúfa say that they followed the custom of 'Alí. Their way of reckoning is generally adopted in India. They reckon 6,239 verses.
(2). Basra verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asim bin Hajjáj, a Companion. They reckon 6,204.
(3). Shámi verses. The Readers in Syria (Shám) followed Abd-ulláh bin 'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 6,225 verses.
(4). Mecca verses. According to this arrangement there are 6,219 verses.
(5). Madína verses. This way of reading contains 6,211 verses.
In each of the above varieties the verse "Bismilláh" (in the name of God) is not reckoned. It occurs 113 times in the Qurán.
This diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of any important passage. The third verse of the third Sura is an important exception. The position of the circle , the symbol denoting a full stop, in that verse is of the highest importance in connection with the rise of scholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalám) in Islám.
Most of the cases, however, are like the following:—
In Sura xxvii. an account is given of the Queen of Sheba's receiving a letter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles she said: "Verily, Kings, when they enter a city (by force) waste the same, and abase the most powerful of the inhabitants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us)." Many Readers put the full stop after the word "hereof," and say that God is the speaker of the words "and so will they do."
(4). Súra, or chapter. The word Sura means a row or series, such as a line of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is now exclusively used for chapters in the Qurán. These are one hundred and fourteen in number. The Súras are not numbered in the original Arabic, but each one has some approximate name, (as Baqr—the cow, Nisá—women, &c.,) generally taken from some expression which occurs in it. They are not arranged in chronological order, but according to their length. As a general rule, the shorter Súras which contain the theology of Islám, belong to the Meccan period of the Prophet's career, and the longer ones relating chiefly to social duties and relationships, to the organisation of Islám as a civil polity, to the time when he was consolidating his power at Madína. The best way, therefore, to read the Qurán, is to begin at the end. The attempt to arrange the Súras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, after all, can only be approximately correct. Carlyle referring to the confused mass of "endless iterations, long windedness, entanglement, most crude, incondite" says: "nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European through the Qurán." When re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible. The chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter. There is a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the earlier and later Súras. The references to historical events sometimes give a clue. Individual Súras are often very composite in their character, but, such as they are, they have been from the beginning. The recension made by Zeid, in the reign of the Khalíf Osmán, has been handed down unaltered in its form. The only variations (qirá'at) now to be found in the text have been already noticed. They in no way affect the arrangements of the Súras.
5. Sípára a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word derived from sí, thirty, and pára, a portion. The Arabs call each of these divisions a Juz. Owing to this division, a pious man can recite the whole Qurán in a month, taking one Sípára each day. Musalmáns never quote the Qurán as we do by Sura and Áyat, but by the Sípára and Rukú', a term I now proceed to explain.
6. Rukú' (plural Rukúát). This word literally means a prostration made by a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers. The collection of verses recited from the Qurán, ascriptions of praise offered to God, and various ritual acts connected with these, constitute one act of worship called a "rak'at." After reciting some verses in this form of prayer, the worshipper makes a Rukú', or prostration, the portion then recited takes the name of Rukú'. Tradition states that the Khalíf Osmán, when reciting the Qurán during the month of Ramazán, used to make twenty rak'ats each evening. In each rak'at he introduced different verses of the Qurán, beginning with the first chapter and going steadily on. In this way he recited about two hundred verses each evening; that is, about ten verses in each rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Qurán in this way in Ramazán, and also to quote it by the rukú', e.g., "such a passage is in such a Sípára and in such a rukú'."
The following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain. When the Faithful are assembled in the mosque, the Imám, or leader, being in front facing the Qibla, the service commences thus:—Each worshipper stands and says the Niyyat (literally "intention"), a form of words declaring his intention to say his prayers. He then says: "God is great." After this, looking downwards, he says: "Holiness to Thee, O God! and praise be to Thee, Great is Thy name, Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity but Thee." Then follows: "I seek from God refuge from cursed Satan." Then the Tasmiyah is repeated: "In the name of God, the Compassionate and Merciful." Then follows the Fátiha, that is, the short chapter at the commencement of the Qurán. After this has been recited, the Imám proceeds, on the first night of the month Ramazán, with the first verse of the second chapter. After saying a few verses, he makes a rukú'; that is, he bends his head and body down, and places his hands on his knees. In this position he says: "God is great." Then he repeats three times the words: "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great." He then stands up and says: "God hears him who praises Him." To this the people respond: "O Lord, thou art praised." Again, falling on his knees, the worshipper says: "God is great." Then he puts first his nose, and then his forehead on the ground and says three times: "I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High." Then sitting on his heels, he says: "God is great;" and again repeats as before: "I extol, etc." He then rises and says: "God is great." This is one rak'at. On each night in the month of Ramazán this is gone through twenty times, the only variation being that after the Fátiha and before the first prostration, fresh verses of the Qurán are introduced. The whole is, of course, done in Arabic, in whatever country the worshippers may be. The name of the prostration (rukú') has been transferred to the portion of the Qurán recited just before it is made. There are altogether 557 Rukúát.
(7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a Sumn, Ruba', Nisf, Suls, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, one-third of a Sípára respectively.
In reciting the Qurán the worshipper must be careful to say the "Takbír," i.e. "God is great," after the several appointed places. Such a place is after the recital of the 93rd Súra. The custom arose in this way. The hypocrites came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the story of the "Seven Sleepers." He said: "I will tell you to-morrow;" but he forgot to add the words "if God will." By way of warning, God allowed no inspiration to descend upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites began to laugh and say: "God has left him." As it was not God's purpose to put his messenger to ridicule, the Sura entitled "The brightness" (xciii) was immediately brought by the ever-ready Gabriel. It begins: "By the brightness of the morning, and by the night when it groweth dark, thy Lord hath not forsaken thee, neither doth He hate thee." In remembrance of this signal interposition of Providence on his behalf, the Prophet always concluded the recital of this Sura with the words: "God is great." The practice thus became a "Sunnat" obligation; that is, it should be done because the Prophet did it.